THE EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS
Joy and sadness are experienced by people in all cultures around the world, but how can we tell when other people are happy or despondent? It turns out that the expression of many emotions may be universal. Smiling is apparently a universal sign of friendliness and approval. Baring the teeth in a hostile way, as noted by Charles Darwin in the nineteenth century, may be a universal sign of anger. As the originator of the theory of evolution, Darwin believed that the universal recognition of facial expressions would have survival value. For example, facial expressions could signal the approach of enemies (or friends) in the absence of language.
Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. Those queried ranged from European college students to members of the Fore, a tribe that dwells in the New Guinea highlands. All groups, including the Fore, who had almost no contact with Western culture, agreed on the portrayed emotions. The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. Ekman and his colleagues more recently obtained similar results in a study of ten cultures in which participants were permitted to report that multiple emotions were shown by facial expressions. The participants generally agreed on which two emotions were being shown and which emotion was more intense.
Psychological researchers generally recognize that facial expressions reflect emotional states. In fact, various emotional states give rise to certain patterns of electrical activity in the facial muscles and in the brain. The facial-feedback hypothesis argues, however, that the causal relationship between emotions and facial expressions can also work in the opposite direction. According to this hypothesis, signals from the facial muscles ("feedback) are sent back to emotion centers of the brain, and so a person's facial expression can influence that person's emotional state. Consider Darwin's words: "The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions." Can smiling give rise to feelings of good will, for example, and frowning to anger.
Psychological research has given rise to some interesting findings concerning the facial-feedback hypothesis. Causing participants in experiments to smile, for example, leads them to report more positive feelings and to rate cartoons (humorous drawings of people or situations) as being more humorous. When they are caused to frown, they rate cartoons as being more aggressive.
What are the possible links between facial expressions and emotion? One link is arousal, which is the level of activity or preparedness for activity in an organism. Intense contraction of facial muscles, such as those used in signifying fear, heightens arousal. Self-perception of heightened arousal then leads to heightened emotional activity. Other links may involve changes in brain temperature and the release of neurotransmitters (substances that transmit nerve impulses.) The contraction of facial muscles both influences the internal emotional state and reflects it. Ekman has found that the so-called Duchenne smile, which is characterized by ''crow’s feet" wrinkles around the eyes and a subtle drop in the eye cover fold so that the skin above the eye moves down slightly toward the eyeball, can lead to pleasant feelings.
Ekman’s observation may be relevant to the British expression “keep a stiff upper lip” as a recommendation for handling stress. It might be that a “stiff” lip suppresses emotional response -- as long as the lip is not quivering with fear or tension. But when the emotion that leads to stiffening the lip is more intense, and involves strong muscle tension, facial feedback may heighten emotional response.
Paragraph 1：Joy and sadness are experienced by people in all cultures around the world, but how can we tell when other people are happy or despondent? It turns out that the expression of many emotions may be universal. Smiling is apparently a universal sign of friendliness and approval. Baring the teeth in a hostile way, as noted by Charles Darwin in the nineteenth century, may be a universal sign of anger. As the originator of the theory of evolution, Darwin believed that the universal recognition of facial expressions would have survival value. For example, facial expressions could signal the approach of enemies (or friends) in the absence of language.
1. The word despondent in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Curious
○Unhappy
○Thoughtful
○Uncertain
2. The author mentions "Baring the teeth in a hostile way" in order to
○Differentiate one possible meaning of a particular facial expression from other meanings of it
○Support Darwin's theory of evolution
○Provide an example of a facial expression whose meaning is widely understood
○Contrast a facial expression that is easily understood with other facial expressions
Paragraph 2: Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. Those queried ranged from European college students to members of the Fore, a tribe that dwells in the New Guinea highlands. All groups, including the Fore, who had almost no contact with Western culture, agreed on the portrayed emotions. The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. Ekman and his colleagues more recently obtained similar results in a study of ten cultures in which participants were permitted to report that multiple emotions were shown by facial expressions. The participants generally agreed on which two emotions were being shown and which emotion was more intense.
3. The word concur in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Estimate
○Agree
○Expect
○Understand
4. The word them in the passage refers to
○Emotions
○People
○Photographs
○Cultures
5. According to paragraph 2, which of the following was true of the Fore people of New Guinea?
○They did not want to be shown photographs.
○They were famous for their story-telling skills.
○They knew very little about Western culture.
○They did not encourage the expression of emotions.
6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○The Fore's facial expressions indicated their unwillingness to pretend to be story characters.
○The Fore were asked to display familiar facial expressions when they told their stories.
○The Fore exhibited the same relationship of facial expressions and basic emotions that is seen in Western culture when they acted out stories.
○The Fore were familiar with the facial expressions and basic emotions of characters in stories.
Paragraph 3: Psychological researchers generally recognize that facial expressions reflect emotional states. In fact, various emotional states give rise to certain patterns of electrical activity in the facial muscles and in the brain. The facial-feedback hypothesis argues, however, that the causal relationship between emotions and facial expressions can also work in the opposite direction. According to this hypothesis, signals from the facial muscles ("feedback) are sent back to emotion centers of the brain, and so a person's facial expression can influence that person's emotional state. Consider Darwin's words: "The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions." Can smiling give rise to feelings of good will, for example, and frowning to anger?
7. According to the passage, what did Darwin believe would happen to human emotions that were not expressed?
○They would become less intense.
○They would last longer than usual.
○They would cause problems later.
○They would become more negative
Paragraph 4；Psychological research has given rise to some interesting findings concerning the facial-feedback hypothesis. Causing participants in experiments to smile, for example, leads them to report more positive feelings and to rate cartoons (humorous drawings of people or situations) as being more humorous. When they are caused to frown, they rate cartoons as being more aggressive.
8. According to the passage, research involving which of the following supported the facial-feedback hypothesis?
○The reactions of people in experiments to cartoons
○The tendency of people in experiments to cooperate
○The release of neurotransmitters by people during experiments
○The long-term effects of repressing emotions
9. The word rate in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Judge
○Reject
○Draw
○Want
Paragraph 6: Ekman’s observation may be relevant to the British expression “keep a stiff upper lip” as a recommendation for handling stress. It might be that a “stiff” lip suppresses emotional response -- as long as the lip is not quivering with fear or tension. But when the emotion that leads to stiffening the lip is more intense, and involves strong muscle tension, facial feedback may heighten emotional response.
10. The word relevant in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Contradictory
○Confusing
○Dependent
○Applicable
11. According to the passage, stiffening the upper lip may have which of the following effects?
○It first suppresses stress, then intensifies it.
○It may cause fear and tension in those who see it.
○It can damage the lip muscles.
○It may either heighten or reduce emotional response.
Paragraph 2: Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. Those queried ranged from European college students to members of the Fore, a tribe that dwells in the New Guinea highlands. All groups, including the Fore, who had almost no contact with Western culture, agreed on the portrayed emotions. The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. Ekman and his colleagues more recently obtained similar results in a study of ten cultures in which participants were permitted to report that multiple emotions were shown by facial expressions. The participants generally agreed on which two emotions were being shown and which emotion was more intense.
12. Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
This universality in the recognition of emotions was demonstrated by using rather simple methods.
Where would the sentence best fit?
13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Psychological research seems to confirm that people associate particular facial expressions with the same emotions across cultures.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
1. Artificially producing the Duchenne smile can cause a person to have pleasant feelings.
2. Facial expressions and emotional states interact with each other through a variety of feedback mechanisms.
3. People commonly believe that they can control their facial expressions so that their true emotions remain hidden.
4. A person's facial expression may reflect the person's emotional state.
5. Ekman argued that the ability to accurately recognize the emotional content of facial expressions was valuable for human beings.
6. Facial expressions that occur as a result of an individual's emotional state may themselves feed back information that influences the person's emotions.
參考答案：
1. ○ 2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is despondent. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "unhappy." The sentence in which the highlighted word appears uses despondent as a contrast to happy. Since unhappy is the opposite of happy, it provides the fullest possible contrast and is equivalent to the contrast between Joy and sadness at the beginning of the sentence.
2. ○ 3
This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. It is asking you why the author mentions "baring the teeth in a hostile way" in the passage. This phrase is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3; baring the teeth is an example of a facial expression whose meaning is widely understood. The central theme of paragraph 1 of the passage is facial expressions that are universal. The author provides various examples of such expressions, and baring the teeth is mentioned as a universal sign of anger. The other choices are all mentioned in the passage, but not in conjunction with baring the teeth, so they are all incorrect.
3. ○ 2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is concur. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "agree." Concur means to agree, so if investigators concur about the meaning of certain facial expressions, they agree on their meaning.
4. ○ 3
This is a Reference question. The word being tested is them, and it is highlighted in the passage. This is a simple pronoun-referent item. The word them refers to the photographs that Paul Eckman showed to people from diverse cultures, so the correct answer is choice 3, "photographs."
5. ○ 3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 2. The correct answer is choice 3, which states that the Fore people of New Zealand knew very little about Western culture. The paragraph explicitly says that the Fore had almost no contact with Western culture. None of the other three choices is mentioned in connection with the Fore, so none of them is correct.
6. ○ 3
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted:
The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses.
The correct answer is choice 3. It contains all of the essential ideas in the highlighted sentence without changing the meaning. This choice says that the Fore "exhibited the same relationship of facial and basic emotions that is seen in Western culture when they acted out stories." The sentence that precedes the highlighted sentence states that in a survey, the Fore agreed with Westerners on how various emotions are portrayed. Then the highlighted sentence says that in a different situation (story-telling) the Fores' expressions were also familiar; that is, these expressions were the same as those exhibited by Westerners in this situation. Choices 1 and 2 are incorrect because each one changes the highlighted sentence into a statement that is not true. Choice 4 is incorrect because it says that the Fore were familiar with the facial expressions of characters in stories. The highlighted sentence says that it was the investigators who were familiar with the Fores' expressions. This is a change in meaning, so it is incorrect.
7. ○ 1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, emotions that are not expressed become less intense. This is correct based on the direct quotation of Darwin in paragraph 3. In that quotation, Darwin says that emotions that are freely expressed become more intense, while "on the other hand those that are not freely expressed are "softened," meaning that they become less intense. Choices 2, 3, and 4 are all incorrect because there is nothing in the passage that indicates Darwin ever believed these things about expressing emotions. Some or all of them may actually be true, but there is nothing in this passage that supports them.
8. ○ 1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. You can see that the phrase "The facial-feedback hypothesis" is highlighted where it first appears in the passage in paragraph 3. The correct answer is choice 1, research supporting this hypothesis came from studying experiments of the reactions of people to cartoons. This idea is found in paragraph 4, which uses these experiments as an example of how facial feedback works. Choice 3, the release of neurotransmitters, is mentioned in paragraph 5 but, not in connection with the facial-feedback hypothesis, so it is incorrect. Choices 2 and 4 are not explicitly mentioned at all in the passage.
9. ○ 1
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is rate, and it is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, "judge." Rate in this context means "to judge."
10. ○ 4
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is relevant, and it is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 4, "applicable. "Relevant means that Ekman's observation applies ("is applicable") to an expression.
11. ○ 4
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. The correct answer is choice 4; stiffening the upper lip may either heighten or reduce emotional response. This is stated explicitly in paragraph 6 of the passage as a possible paradox in the relationship between facial expressions and emotions.
Choice 1 is incorrect because paragraph 6 contradicts it.
Choice 2 is incorrect because the passage mentions only the fear and tension of a person trying to keep a stiff upper lip, not any fear or tension that expression may cause in others.
Choice 3 is incorrect because there is no suggestion anywhere in the passage that stiffening the upper lip may damage lip muscles.
12. ○3
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 2 that represent the possible answer choices here.
Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. II In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. . He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. Those queried ranged from European college students to members of the Fore, a tribe that dwells in the New Guinea highlands. All groups, including the Fore, who had almost no contact with Western culture, agreed on the portrayed emotions. The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. Ekman and his colleagues more recently obtained similar results in a study of ten cultures in which participants were permitted to report that multiple emotions were shown by facial expressions. The participants generally agreed on which two emotions were being shown and which emotion was more intense.
The sentence provided, "This universality in the recognition of emotions was demonstrated by using rather simple methods," is best inserted at square 3. Square 3 is correct because the inserted sentence begins with the phrase "This universality." The universality being referred to is the fact, stated in the second sentence, that "people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions."
None of the other answer choices follows a sentence that contains a universal statement. Sentence 1 mentions that "Most investigators concur," which means that some do not. Therefore this is not a universal statement. Squares 2 and 4 are incorrect because there is nothing in either sentence to which "This universality" could refer.
13. ○2 4 6
This is a Prose Summary question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices are 2, 4, and 6. Choices 1, 3, and 5 are therefore incorrect.
參考譯文
在世界范圍內(nèi)各種不同的文化里，人們都是要經(jīng)歷歡樂(lè)和悲傷的，但我們?cè)趺磪^(qū)分其他人是高興還是沮喪呢？事實(shí)上，很多情感的表達(dá)可能是通用的。比如，微笑顯然表示友好和贊同。查爾斯達(dá)爾文是進(jìn)化論的創(chuàng)始人，他在19世紀(jì)曾指出，懷有敵意地露出牙齒表現(xiàn)的是憤怒的情緒，人類對(duì)面部表情的認(rèn)知具有一定的生存值。例如，面部表情可以以非語(yǔ)言的方式幫你判斷迎面而來(lái)的是敵還是友。
很多調(diào)查得出了同樣的結(jié)論，即人類的某些面部表情表達(dá)的含義是通用的。此外，不同文化背景的人可以通過(guò)面部表情的識(shí)別來(lái)判斷對(duì)方的情緒。在一個(gè)經(jīng)典的研究項(xiàng)目中，保羅�？寺南铝艘唤M人的照片，分別表示憤怒、厭惡、恐懼、幸福、悲傷。然后，他安排來(lái)自世界各地的人們識(shí)別照片中所表達(dá)的情感。這些人包括歐洲大學(xué)生，居住在新幾內(nèi)亞高地的部落等。包括幾乎從未接觸過(guò)西方文化的人在內(nèi)的所有人得出了一致的答案。此外，問(wèn)卷中還給出了一些人們熟悉的基本表情，要求答卷者回答如果你是故事中的人物你會(huì)作出哪種基本表情？�？寺退耐聜儚慕诘囊豁�(xiàng)統(tǒng)計(jì)中得出了相同的結(jié)論，他們對(duì)來(lái)自10個(gè)不同文化背景的參與者們進(jìn)行了調(diào)查，參與者可以通過(guò)多種面部表情傳達(dá)復(fù)雜的情緒。畫(huà)面表達(dá)了哪兩種情感？其中那張更嚴(yán)肅？答案基本一致。
研究心理學(xué)的學(xué)者們通常認(rèn)為，面部表情可以反映人們內(nèi)心的情緒狀態(tài)。事實(shí)上，各種情緒狀態(tài)的波動(dòng)都會(huì)使得面部肌肉和大腦的電波活動(dòng)增加。然而，臉部回饋假說(shuō)論者們卻堅(jiān)持，面部表情和情緒之間的因果關(guān)系也可能是反的。他們認(rèn)為，臉部肌肉承載的信號(hào)會(huì)被傳至大腦的控制情緒的部位中，因此人類面部表情會(huì)影響他們的情緒。試想達(dá)爾文的話：“自由的情緒表達(dá)方式會(huì)增強(qiáng)心中的情感。相反，如果抑制這種表達(dá)則會(huì)削弱心中的情感。” 比如，微笑可以讓你心情大好嗎？皺眉會(huì)讓你變得憤怒嗎？
關(guān)于臉部回饋假說(shuō)，心理學(xué)研究提供了一些有趣的發(fā)現(xiàn)。比如，讓參與實(shí)驗(yàn)的人們微笑，他們會(huì)表現(xiàn)的更加積極，他們?cè)u(píng)價(jià)圖片相對(duì)而言更加風(fēng)趣幽默。當(dāng)他們皺眉頭時(shí)，則變得加咄咄逼人。
面部表情和內(nèi)心情感之間存在什么樣可能的聯(lián)系呢？首先，是刺激。這是一個(gè)有機(jī)體活動(dòng)的準(zhǔn)備階段。面部肌肉的緊張收縮會(huì)加劇這種刺激，如那些表現(xiàn)得極度的恐懼肌肉收縮。加強(qiáng)刺激的自我感知會(huì)加劇內(nèi)心各種情緒。其次，他們的聯(lián)系可能會(huì)涉及到大腦溫度變化和神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)的釋放（傳遞神經(jīng)沖動(dòng)的物質(zhì)）。面部肌肉的收縮反映并影響內(nèi)心情緒狀態(tài)。�？寺l(fā)現(xiàn)，所謂的杜興微笑，就是指眼睛周圍的魚(yú)尾紋和眼皮的微微下垂，引發(fā)眼睛表面的皮膚輕微朝著眼球方向下降，從而引起愉快的感覺(jué)。
埃克曼的看法可能與英國(guó)習(xí)語(yǔ)“保持咬緊牙關(guān)”有關(guān)，人們可以用過(guò)緊咬牙關(guān)緩解自身壓力。很有可能是因?yàn)榫o咬牙關(guān)抑制了消極情緒，只要嘴唇?jīng)]緊張或者恐懼得發(fā)抖。但是，當(dāng)內(nèi)心情緒導(dǎo)致僵硬的嘴唇更加緊張時(shí)，面部表情強(qiáng)有力的收縮很有可能會(huì)加劇內(nèi)心的情緒反應(yīng)
