DESERT FORMATION
The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth's land surface, have in recent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. The expansion of desertlike conditions into areas where they did not previously exist is called desertification. It has been estimated that an additional one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened by this process.
Desertification is accomplished primarily through the loss of stabilizing natural vegetation and the subsequent accelerated erosion of the soil by wind and water. In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away, leaving a stony surface. In other cases, the finer particles may be removed, while the sand-sized particles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridges of sand.
Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typically results in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established.
In some regions, the increase in desert areas is occurring largely as the result of a trend toward drier climatic conditions. Continued gradual global warming has produced an increase in aridity for some areas over the past few thousand years. The process may be accelerated in subsequent decades if global warming resulting from air pollution seriously increases.
There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results primarily from human activities rather than natural processes. The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results.
Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering, and overirrigation. The cultivation of crops has expanded into progressively drier regions as population densities have grown. These regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop failures are common. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover and susceptible to wind and water erosion.
The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion.
Firewood is the chief fuel used for cooking and heating in many countries. The increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants so that many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs. The increasing use of dried animal waste as a substitute fuel has also hurt the soil because this valuable soil conditioner and source of plant nutrients is no longer being returned to the land.
The final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization resulting from overirrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks down into the water table. If no drainage system exists, the water table rises, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the salts are left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from reaching the underlying soil.
The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. Once the soil has been removed by erosion, only the passage of centuries or millennia will enable new soil to form. In areas where considerable soil still remains, though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.
Paragraph 1: The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth's land surface, have in recent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. The expansion of desertlike conditions into areas where they did not previously exist is called desertification. It has been estimated that an additional one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened by this process.
1. The word threatened in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Restricted
○Endangered
○Prevented
○Rejected
Paragraph 3: Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typically results in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established.
?
2. According to paragraph 3, the loss of natural vegetation has which of the following consequences for soil?
○Increased stony content
○Reduced water absorption
○Increased numbers of spaces in the soil
○Reduced water runoff
Paragraph 5: There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results primarily from human activities rather than natural processes. The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results.
3. The word delicate in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Fragile
○Predictable
○Complex
○Valuable
4. According to paragraph 5, in dry periods, border areas have difficulty
○Adjusting to stresses created by settlement
○Retaining their fertility after desertification
○Providing water for irrigating crops
○Attracting populations in search of food and fuel
Paragraph 6: Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering, and overirrigation. The cultivation of crops has expanded into progressively drier regions as population densities have grown. These regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop failures are common. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover and susceptible to wind and water erosion.
5. The word progressively in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Openly
○Impressively
○Objectively
○Increasingly
6. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is often associated with raising crops?
○Lack of proper irrigation techniques
○Failure to plant crops suited to the particular area
○Removal of the original vegetation
○Excessive use of dried animal waste
7. The phrase devoid of in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Consisting of
○Hidden by
○Except for
○Lacking in
Paragraph 9: The final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization resulting from over irrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks down into the water table. If no drainage system exists, the water table rises, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the salts are left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from reaching the underlying soil.
8. According to paragraph 9, the ground’s absorption of excess water is a factor in desertification because it can
○Interfere with the irrigation of land
○Limit the evaporation of water
○Require more absorption of air by the soil
○B(yǎng)ring salts to the surface
9. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as contributing to desertification EXCEPT
○Soil erosion
○Global warming
○Insufficient irrigation
○The raising of livestock
Paragraph 10: The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. Once the soil has been removed by erosion, only the passage of centuries or millennia will enable new soil to form. In areas where considerable soil still remains, though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.
10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard to reverse and affects large areas of land and great numbers of people.
○Slowing down the process of desertification is difficult because of population growth that has spread over large areas of land.
○The spread of deserts is considered a very serious problem that can be solved only if large numbers of people in various countries are involved in the effort.
○Desertification is extremely hard to reverse unless the population is reduced in the vast areas affected.
11. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most likely believes which of the following about the future of desertification?
○Governments will act quickly to control further desertification.
○The factors influencing desertification occur in cycles and will change in the future.
○Desertification will continue to increase.
○Desertification will soon occur in all areas of the world.
Paragraph 7:■ The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. ■The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. ■This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion.■
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.
This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing.
Where would the sentence best fit?
13-14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Many factors have contributed to the great increase in desertification in recent decades.
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●
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Answer Choices
1. Growing human populations and the agricultural demands that come with such growth have upset the ecological balance in some areas and led to the spread of deserts.
2. As periods of severe dryness have become more common, failures of a number of different crops have increased.
3. Excessive numbers of cattle and the need for firewood for fuel have reduced grasses and trees, leaving the land unprotected and vulnerable.
4. Extensive irrigation with poor drainage brings salt to the surface of the soil, a process that reduces water and air absorption.
5. Animal dung enriches the soil by providing nutrients for plant growth.
6. Grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation in semiarid lands.
參考答案：
1. ○2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is threatened. It is highlighted in the passage. To threaten means to speak or act as if you will cause harm to someone or something. The object of the threat is in danger of being hurt, so the correct answer is choice 2, "endangered."
2. ○2
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 3. The correct answer is choice 2, reduced water absorption. The paragraph explicitly states that the reduction of vegetation greatly reduces water absorption. Choice 4, reduced water runoff, explicitly contradicts the paragraph, so it is incorrect. The "spaces in the soil" are mentioned in another context: the paragraph does not say that they increase, so choice 3 is incorrect. The paragraph does not mention choice 1.
3. ○1
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is delicate. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, "fragile," meaning "easily broken." Delicate has the same meaning as "fragile."
4. ○1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 5. The correct answer is choice 1: border areas have difficulty "adjusting to stresses created by settlement." The paragraph says that "expanding populations," or settlement, subject border areas to "pressures," or stress, that the land may not "be able to respond to." Choice 2 is incorrect because the paragraph does not discuss "fertility" after desertification. Choice 3 is also incorrect because "irrigation" is not mentioned here. The paragraph mentions "increasing populations" but not the difficulty of "attracting populations," so choice 4 is incorrect.
5. ○4
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is progressively. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 4, "increasingly." Progressively as it is used here means "more," and "more" of something means that it is increasing.
6. ○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 6. The correct answer is choice 3, "removal of the original vegetation." Sentence 4 of this paragraph says that "the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural vegetation," an explicit statement of answer choice 3. Choice 1, lack of proper irrigation techniques, is incorrect because the paragraph mentions only "overirrigation" as a cause of desertification. No irrigation "techniques" are discussed. Choices 2 and 4, failure to plant suitable crops and use of animal waste, are not discussed.
7. ○4
his is a Vocabulary question. A phrase is being tested here, and all of the answer choices are phrases. The phrase is "devoid of." It is highlighted in the passage. "Devoid of' means "without," so the correct answer is choice 4, "lacking in." If you lack something that means you are without that thing.
8. ○4
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 9. The correct answer is choice 4, "bring salts to the surface." The paragraph says that the final human cause of desertification is salinization resulting from overirrigation. The paragraph goes on to say that the overirrigation causes the water table to rise, bringing salts to the surface. There is no mention of the process "interfering" with or "limiting" irrigation, or of the "amount of air" the soil is required to absorb, so choices 1,2, and 3 are all incorrect.
9. ○3
This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. Choice 3, "insufficient irrigation," is the correct answer. Choice 1, "soil erosion," is explicitly mentioned in paragraph 2 as one of the primary causes of desertification, so it is not the correct answer. Choice 2, "global warning," is mentioned as a cause of desertification in paragraph 4, so it is incorrect. Choice 4, "raising of livestock," is described in paragraph 7 as another cause of desertification, so it is incorrect. The passage includes excessive irrigation as a cause of desertification, but not its opposite, insufficient irrigation, so that is the correct answer.
10. ○1
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted:
The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process.
The correct answer is choice 1. That choice contains all of the essential information in the highlighted sentence and does not change its meaning. The only substantive difference between choice 1 and the tested sentence is the order in which he information is presented. Two clauses in the highlighted sentence, "The great difficulty of reversing the process" and "the numbers of people affected," have simply been reversed; no meaning has been changed, and no information has been removed. Choices 2,3, and 4 are all incorrect because they change the meaning of the highlighted sentence.
11. ○3
This is an Inference question asking for an inference that can be supported by the passage. The correct answer is choice 3; the passage suggests that the author believes "Desertification will continue to increase." The last paragraph of the passage says that slowing or reversing the erosion process will be very difficult, but that it may occur in those areas that are not too affected already if rigorously enforced anti-erosion processes are implemented. Taken together, this suggests that the author is not confident this until happen; therefore, it can be inferred that he thinks erosion will continue. The passage provides no basis for inferring choices 1, 2, or 4.
12. ○2
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph
7 that represent the possible answer choices here:
■The raising of live stock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. ■The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. ■This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion. ■
The sentence provided, "This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing," is best inserted at Square 2. The inserted sentence refers explicitly to relying on "livestock in certain regions." Those regions are the ones described in the sentence preceding square2, which states that raising livestock is "a major economic activity in semiarid lands." The inserted sentence then explains that this reliance "makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing. " The sentence that follows square 2 goes on to say that "The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are. . ." Thus, the inserted sentence contains references to both the sentence before square 2 and the sentence after square 2. This is not true of any of the other possible insert points, so square 2 is correct.
13-14.○1 3 4
This is a Prose Summary question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices are 1, 3, and 4. Choices 2, 5, and 6 are therefore incorrect.
參考譯文：
沙漠已經(jīng)占據(jù)了地球表面積約四分之一，而且最近幾十年正以驚人的速度擴(kuò)張。沙漠化是指類似沙漠的環(huán)境漫延到原本并非沙漠的區(qū)域。據(jù)估計(jì)，地球表面另外四分之一的地方正面臨沙漠化威脅。
沙漠化主要通過以下過程實(shí)現(xiàn)：首先自然植被不斷減少，隨后風(fēng)力和雨水加速了土壤的腐蝕。有的時(shí)候松散的土壤全部被風(fēng)刮走，留下石質(zhì)化的表層；其它情況下細(xì)小的沙粒可能會(huì)被吹走，而正常沙粒大小的砂子不斷堆積，從而形成移動(dòng)的沙丘或者沙脊。
即便是在保留了土壤表層的區(qū)域，植被減少也已成為土壤大量吸取地下水的能力下降的典型因素。雨水對(duì)松散土壤的沖擊會(huì)把細(xì)小的粘土顆粒沖到土壤空隙中，封閉了土壤并降低土地表層水的滲透率。地表對(duì)水的吸收急劇減少，大量水資源流失，因此土壤的腐蝕率也隨即增加。地表吸收水分的能力進(jìn)一步弱化使得土壤越發(fā)干燥，導(dǎo)致植被的進(jìn)一步流失，于是便形成了土壤沙漠化的惡性循環(huán)。
在一些地方，沙漠面積的擴(kuò)大很大程度上歸因于干燥的氣候條件。在過去的幾千年里，不斷增加的溫室效應(yīng)使得一些地方干旱問題愈發(fā)嚴(yán)重。倘若空氣污染帶來的溫室效應(yīng)繼續(xù)惡化，沙漠化進(jìn)程會(huì)在未來數(shù)十年內(nèi)加速實(shí)現(xiàn)。
然而，可以肯定的是，大部分地區(qū)沙漠化主要都是由于人類活動(dòng)造成，而非自然條件導(dǎo)致。沙漠邊緣的半干旱土地所處的生態(tài)平衡環(huán)境非常脆弱，環(huán)境壓力持續(xù)增加，而這些半干旱區(qū)域適應(yīng)環(huán)境壓力的能力極其有限。人口數(shù)量的增加使得人們不斷向土地施壓，依其提供實(shí)物和燃料。在濕潤(rùn)的季節(jié)里，土地興許能夠應(yīng)付這些壓力。但是在干旱的季節(jié)里，在沙漠周邊的土地上，存在著這樣一個(gè)十分普遍的現(xiàn)象：人類對(duì)土地施加的壓力遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過了土地自身減壓的能力，因此最終形成了沙漠。
導(dǎo)致沙漠化的主要因素有四個(gè)：過度種植，過度放牧，過分砍伐，過度灌溉。由于人口密度增加，人們對(duì)糧食作物的種植已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展到日益干燥的區(qū)域進(jìn)行。這些區(qū)域很有可能經(jīng)常會(huì)發(fā)生干旱，所以農(nóng)作物種植失敗是很正常的事情。種植大量農(nóng)作物需要事先移除天然植被，而農(nóng)作物欠收后又會(huì)留下大面積荒地，非常容易被風(fēng)力和雨水侵蝕。
在半干旱地區(qū)，草坪是主要的天然植被，家畜飼養(yǎng)是當(dāng)?shù)氐囊豁?xiàng)主要經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)。在一個(gè)地區(qū)過量飼養(yǎng)家畜會(huì)導(dǎo)致植被覆蓋面積減少，土地被大量踐踏和碾碎。通常，隨之而來的就是土地硬化和加速侵蝕。
在很多國(guó)家木材是用來做飯和加熱的最主要燃料。人口增加帶來的壓力促使人們大量砍伐木材，導(dǎo)致許多城市和鄉(xiāng)村周圍大面積樹木和灌木減少。同時(shí)人們大量使用烘干的動(dòng)物排泄物作為替代燃料同樣對(duì)土壤不利，因?yàn)檫@些珍貴的土壤成分調(diào)節(jié)劑和植物營(yíng)養(yǎng)資源將不會(huì)再回歸至土壤當(dāng)中。
造成土地沙漠化的最后一個(gè)主要人為因素在于人類過度灌溉導(dǎo)致土壤的鹽堿化。灌溉多余的水滲透到地下水位。假如沒有排水系統(tǒng)的存在，那么地下水位上升，把溶解的鹽分帶到土壤表面。水分蒸發(fā)后，鹽分留在了表面，形成白色的地殼層，這一地殼層阻止了空氣和水接觸地底下的土壤。
沙漠化問題異常嚴(yán)重，這是因?yàn)橛衼鋸V闊的地區(qū)和數(shù)量龐大的人群都受到了沙漠化的影響，而且要想逆轉(zhuǎn)沙漠化的進(jìn)程甚至減緩沙漠化的速度都面臨著巨大的困難。一旦土壤被侵蝕，需要再經(jīng)過幾百到上千年的時(shí)間才會(huì)產(chǎn)生新的土壤。那些大量土壤仍保存完好的地方，亟需一個(gè)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)而有力的保護(hù)政策和植被覆蓋計(jì)劃來保護(hù)現(xiàn)有土地。
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