Specialization can be seen as a response to the problem of an increasing accumulation of scientific knowledge. By splitting up the subject matter into smaller units, one man could continue to handle the information and use it as the basis for further research. But specialization was only one of a series of related developments in science affecting the process of communication. Another was the growing professionalisation of scientific activity。
　　 No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Neverthelss, the word “amateur” does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values. The growth of specialization in the nineteenth century, with its consequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science. The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom。
　　 A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper. Thus, in the nineteenth century, local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right; but, in the twentieth century, local studies have increasingly become acceptable to professionals only if they incorporate, and reflect on, the wider geological picture. Amateurs, on the other hand, have continued to pursue local studies in the old way. The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century. As a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professional or amateur readership. A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, where the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way。
　　 Although the process of professionalisation and specialization was already well under way in British geology during the nineteenth century, its full consequences were thus delayed until the twentieth century. In science generally, however, the nineteenth century must be reckoned as the crucial period for this change in the structure of science。
　　 21. The growth of specialization in the 19th century might be more clearly seen in sciences such as _________。
　　 [A]sociology and chemistry
　　 [B]physics and psychology
　　 [C]sociology and psychology
　　 [D]physics and chemistry
　　 22. We can infer from the passage that _________。
　　 [A]there is little distinction between specialization and professionalisation
　　 [B]amateurs can compete with professionals in some areas of science
　　 [C]professionals tend to welcome amateurs into the scientific community
　　 [D]amateurs have national academic societies but no local ones
　　 23. The author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate _________。
　　 [A]the process of specialization and professionalisation
　　 [B]the hardship of amateurs in scientific study
　　 [C]the change of policies in scientific publications
　　 [D]the discrimination of professionals against amateurs
　　 24. The direct reason for specialization is _________。
　　 [A]the development in communication
　　 [B]the growth of professionalisation
　　 [C]the expansion of scientific knowledge
　　 [D]the splitting up of academic societies

　　 名師解析
　　 21. The growth of specialization in the 19th century might be more clearly seen in sciences such as_________.
　　 19世紀(jì)專業(yè)化的發(fā)展在_______等科學(xué)領(lǐng)域容易看的更加清楚。
　　 [A]sociology and chemistry 社會(huì)學(xué)和化學(xué)
　　 [B]physics and psychology 物理學(xué)和心理學(xué)
　　 [C]sociology and psychology 社會(huì)學(xué)和心理學(xué)
　　 [D]physics and chemistry 物理學(xué)和化學(xué)
　　 【答案】 D
　　 【考點(diǎn)】 事實(shí)細(xì)節(jié)題。
　　 【分析】 根據(jù)題干定位到第二段第三、四句，文中提到“專業(yè)化要求更長(zhǎng)時(shí)間、更復(fù)雜的培訓(xùn)，給參與科學(xué)活動(dòng)的業(yè)余人士帶來了更大的問題。在特別是以數(shù)學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)為基礎(chǔ)的那些科學(xué)領(lǐng)域里，這一傾向自然表現(xiàn)得比較為明顯，英國(guó)地質(zhì)學(xué)領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展充分地說明了這一點(diǎn)”。在這四個(gè)選擇項(xiàng)中，[A]、[B]、[C]都提到了“文科學(xué)科”，只有[D]選項(xiàng)中的“物理學(xué)和化學(xué)”均是“以數(shù)學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)作為基礎(chǔ)的科學(xué)”，因此可以推斷[D]選項(xiàng)符合原文，是正確答案。
　　 22. We can infer from the passage that _____. 從本文可以推斷出______。
　　 [A] there is little distinction between specialization and professionalization
　　 在專業(yè)化和職業(yè)化之間幾乎沒有區(qū)別
　　 [B] amateurs can compete with professionals in some areas of science
　　 業(yè)余人士在某些領(lǐng)域和專業(yè)人士可以競(jìng)爭(zhēng)
　　 [C] professionals tend to welcome amateurs into the scientific community
　　 專業(yè)人士看上去是歡迎業(yè)余人士加入科學(xué)團(tuán)體的
　　 [D] amateurs have national academic societies but no local ones
　　 業(yè)余人士看起來只有全國(guó)性的學(xué)術(shù)協(xié)會(huì)，但是沒有地方性的學(xué)術(shù)協(xié)會(huì)
　　 【答案】 B
　　 【考點(diǎn)】 推斷題。
　　 【分析】 選項(xiàng)[A]中提到“專業(yè)化和職業(yè)化之間幾乎沒有區(qū)別”，而實(shí)際上，它們指的是“不同的領(lǐng)域和方向”，“specialization”針對(duì)“研究對(duì)象”，“professionalization”針對(duì)“研究者”，因此可以排除。選項(xiàng)[C]說“專業(yè)人士看上去是歡迎業(yè)余人士加入科學(xué)團(tuán)體”這種說法也是不對(duì)的，因?yàn)閷�業(yè)化的發(fā)展使得業(yè)余人士受到排擠。[D]選項(xiàng)明顯錯(cuò)誤，因?yàn)槲闹刑岬健凹扔腥珖?guó)性的學(xué)術(shù)協(xié)會(huì)，又有地方性的學(xué)術(shù)協(xié)會(huì)”。第三段指出“局部的研究(local studies)只有在能被納入并反映出更廣泛研究框架的時(shí)候，才為專業(yè)人士所接受”。這說明，某些方面的研究是為專業(yè)研究者所認(rèn)可的，同時(shí)說明了業(yè)余研究與職業(yè)研究并存的狀況。既然是并存的，就說明在某個(gè)地方是可以競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的。因此選擇[B]。
　　 23. The author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate ______。
　　 作者提到地質(zhì)學(xué)發(fā)展是為了說明______。
　　 [A] the process of specialization and professionalization
　　 專業(yè)化和職業(yè)化的過程
　　 [B] the hardship of amateurs in scientific study
　　 業(yè)余人士在科學(xué)研究方面的艱辛
　　 [C] the change of policies in scientific publications
　　 科技出版政策的變化
　　 [D] the discrimination of professionals against amateurs
　　 職業(yè)人士對(duì)業(yè)余人士的歧視
　　 【答案】 A
　　 【考點(diǎn)】 作者目的題。
　　 【分析】 根據(jù)題干“地質(zhì)學(xué)發(fā)展”定位到第二段末尾和第三段，第三段主要講的是地質(zhì)學(xué)的發(fā)展;以及第四段第一句“雖然職業(yè)化和專業(yè)化過程早在19世紀(jì)已在英國(guó)的地質(zhì)學(xué)領(lǐng)域展開，但直到20世紀(jì)我們才看到其全面影響”，因此可以判斷這里的正確答案是[A]。[B]選項(xiàng)認(rèn)為是“業(yè)余研究者在科學(xué)研究方面的艱辛”。例子中雖然提到了專業(yè)化給業(yè)余研究者帶來的不利影響. 但是從整體來看，那個(gè)不是重點(diǎn)，地質(zhì)學(xué)的例子主要是為了說明“專業(yè)化和職業(yè)化過程的形成及其影響”。
　　 24. The direct reason for specialization is _______. 造成專業(yè)化的直接原因是_______。
　　 [A] the development in communication 交流的發(fā)展
　　 [B] the growth of professionalization 職業(yè)化的發(fā)展
　　 [C] the expansion of scientific knowledge 科學(xué)知識(shí)的擴(kuò)展
　　 [D] the splitting up of academic societies 學(xué)術(shù)團(tuán)體的分化
　　 【答案】 C
　　 【考點(diǎn)】 事實(shí)細(xì)節(jié)題。
　　 【分析】 本題要求考生找出現(xiàn)象間的因果關(guān)系。全文開篇就指出，“專業(yè)化過程可以被看做是對(duì)日益積累的科學(xué)知識(shí)的反應(yīng)”。這句話的含義實(shí)際上就是“科學(xué)知識(shí)的積累促進(jìn)了專業(yè)化”。因此可以判定[C]是正確選項(xiàng)。[A]選項(xiàng)是不對(duì)的，因?yàn)楦鶕?jù)其中的“交流”一詞可以定位到第一段，文中提到“專業(yè)化影響了交流過程”，而不是反之。[B]不對(duì)，“專業(yè)化是隨著知識(shí)的進(jìn)一步分類而產(chǎn)生的，是和職業(yè)化同時(shí)產(chǎn)生的”，不是其成因。[D]為專業(yè)化的結(jié)果。

　　 難句解析：
　　 1. Nevertheless, the word“amateur”does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values。
　　【結(jié)構(gòu)分析】 本句的主句是“the word‘a(chǎn)mateur’does carry a connotation”，后面有一個(gè)“that”引導(dǎo)的同位語從句，解釋“connotation”，而這個(gè)同位語從句中有兩個(gè)并列謂語。
　　 2. The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom。
　　【結(jié)構(gòu)分析】 本句的主干是“The trend was naturally most obvious… and can be illustrated…”。主語是“the trend”，兩個(gè)謂語部分為“was obvious”和“can be illustrated”。前一個(gè)部分中“based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training”是過去分詞做后置定語修飾“areas of science”。
　　 3. The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century。
　　【結(jié)構(gòu)分析】 本句的主干結(jié)構(gòu)是“The overall result has been to do sth。”。逗號(hào)后面只是一個(gè)名詞性的短語，其關(guān)鍵詞是“a result”，是前面句子主語的同位語，在其內(nèi)部主要是一個(gè)“that”引導(dǎo)的定語從句，而定語從句中又有兩個(gè)并列的狀語“first by..., and then by.。.”。
　　 4. A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way。
　　【結(jié)構(gòu)分析】 這是一個(gè)并列句，由“whereas”(而)連接兩個(gè)分句，說明了兩種情況，前一個(gè)分句的主干是“A process of differentiation has led to professional geologists”，而后面說“the amateurs have tended either to remain…or to come…”。
　　 全文翻譯：
　　 專業(yè)化可被看作針對(duì)科學(xué)知識(shí)不斷膨脹這個(gè)問題所做出的反應(yīng)。通過將學(xué)科細(xì)分為各個(gè)小的單元，個(gè)人能夠繼續(xù)處理這些信息并將它們作為進(jìn)一步研究的基礎(chǔ)。但是專業(yè)化僅僅是一系列相關(guān)科學(xué)進(jìn)步中影響交流過程的的一個(gè)。另一現(xiàn)象是科學(xué)活動(dòng)的日益職業(yè)化。
　　 在科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)，職業(yè)人士與業(yè)余人士之間沒有明確的區(qū)分：任何規(guī)律都有其例外。但是“業(yè)余”這個(gè)詞的確具有一種含義，即相關(guān)的那個(gè)人沒有完全融入某個(gè)科學(xué)家群體，尤其是他可能并不完全認(rèn)同他們的價(jià)值觀。19世紀(jì)的專業(yè)化的發(fā)展，導(dǎo)致了對(duì)更長(zhǎng)更復(fù)雜的訓(xùn)練的要求，意味著業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入科學(xué)界會(huì)遇到更大的困難。特別是在以數(shù)學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)室訓(xùn)練為基礎(chǔ)的科學(xué)領(lǐng)域，這種傾向自然尤為明顯，這可以通過英國(guó)的地質(zhì)學(xué)發(fā)展過程得到證實(shí)。
　　 對(duì)過去一個(gè)半世紀(jì)的英國(guó)地質(zhì)出版物所進(jìn)行的比較表明不但人們對(duì)研究首要性的重視程度在不斷增加，而且對(duì)什么是可以接受的論文的定義也在不斷變化。因此，在19世紀(jì)，局部的地質(zhì)研究本身就代表了一種有價(jià)值的研究;而到了20世紀(jì)，如果局部的研究能夠被職業(yè)人員接受，那么它就必須結(jié)合和思考一個(gè)更加廣闊的地質(zhì)面貌。另一方面，業(yè)余人員繼續(xù)以傳統(tǒng)方式從事局部的研究。結(jié)果，業(yè)余人員在職業(yè)化地質(zhì)學(xué)雜志發(fā)表文章更加困難。審稿制度首先在19世紀(jì)的全國(guó)性雜志中實(shí)行，后來在20世紀(jì)一些地方性地質(zhì)雜志中也開始實(shí)行，這使這個(gè)結(jié)果得到進(jìn)一步加強(qiáng)。這樣發(fā)展的必然結(jié)果是出現(xiàn)了針對(duì)專業(yè)讀者和業(yè)余讀者的不同雜志。類似的分化過程也導(dǎo)致職業(yè)地質(zhì)學(xué)家聚集起來，形成一兩個(gè)全國(guó)性的團(tuán)體，而業(yè)余地質(zhì)學(xué)家則要么留在地方性團(tuán)體中，要么以不同方式組成全國(guó)性的團(tuán)體。
　　 雖然職業(yè)化和專業(yè)化過程在19世紀(jì)的英國(guó)地質(zhì)學(xué)界中已經(jīng)得到迅速發(fā)展，但是它的效果一直拖到20世紀(jì)才充分顯示出來。然而，從整個(gè)科學(xué)來看，19世紀(jì)必須被視為科學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)發(fā)生該變化的關(guān)鍵階段。