Text 1
Specialization can be seen as a response to the problem of an increasing accumulation of scientific knowledge. By splitting up the subject matter into smaller units, one man could continue to handle the information and use it as the basis for further research. But specialization was only one of a series of related developments in science affecting the process of communication. Another was the growing professionalisation of scientific activity.
No clearcut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word‘a(chǎn)mateur’does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community,and, in particular, may not fully share its values. The growth of specialization in the nineteenth century, with its consequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science. The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper. Thus, in the nineteenth century, local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right; but, in the twentieth century, local studies have increasingly become acceptable to professionals only if they incorporate, and reflect on, the wider geological picture. Amateurs, on the other hand, have continued to pursue local studies in the old way. The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century. As a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professional or amateur readership. A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.
Although the process of professionalisation and specialization was already well under way in British geology during the nineteenth century, its full consequences were thus delayed until the twentieth century. In science generally, however, the nineteenth century must be reckoned as the crucial period for this change in the structure of science.
51. The growth of specialization in the 19th century might be more clearly seen in sciences such as .
[A]sociology and chemistry[B]physics and psychology
[C]sociology and psychology[D]physics and chemistry
52. We can infer from the passage that .
[A]there is little distinction between specialization and professionalisation
[B]amateurs can compete with professionals in some areas of science
[C]professionals tend to welcome amateurs into the scientific community
[D]amateurs have national academic societies but no local ones
53. The author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate .
[A]the process of specialization and professionalisation
[B]the hardship of amateurs in scientific study
[C]the change of policies in scientific publications
[D]the discrimination of professionals against amateurs
54. The direct reason for specialization is .
[A]the development in communication[B]the growth of professionalisation
[C]the expansion of scientific knowledge[D]the splitting up of academic societies
核心詞匯:
academic[9AkE5demik]a.學(xué)院的;學(xué)術(shù)性的;(academ古希臘哲學(xué)家柏拉圖及其弟子研究學(xué)問的地方+ic形容詞后綴→學(xué)術(shù)的)
accumulate[E5kju:mjuleit]vt.堆積,積累,積聚vi.累積,聚積(ac+cumul堆積+ate→堆積起來→積累);accumulation(n.積累,堆積)即accumulate+tion
amateur[5AmEtE:]a./n.業(yè)余(水平)的(運(yùn)動(dòng)員、藝術(shù)家等)(amat+eur人→熱愛的人→業(yè)余愛好者)
comparison[kEm5pArisn]n.比較,對(duì)比,比喻,比擬(compar+ison名詞后綴)
connotation[9cCnEu5teiFEn]n.含蓄,含義(con+not(e)+ation),con前綴“一起”,note記錄,ation名詞后綴,所有東西都被一起記錄在其中→含義
constitute[5kCnstitju:t]vt.組成,構(gòu)成,形成;設(shè)立,建立,任命(con 一起+stitute→放到一起→構(gòu)成)
crucial[5kru:FiEl, 5kru:FEl]a.至關(guān)重要的,決定性的
definition[9defi5niFEn]n.定義,解釋;(輪廓影像等的)清晰度;闡明(defin +ition名詞后綴→定義)
delay[di5lei]v.耽擱; 延誤;推遲; 延期(de不+lay放置→未及時(shí)放置好→耽擱)
demonstrate[5demEnstreit]v.論證,證實(shí);演示,說明(de加強(qiáng)+monster+ate動(dòng)詞→加強(qiáng)顯示→證明)
distinction[dis5tiNkFEn]n.區(qū)別,差別;級(jí)別;特性;聲望;顯赫(distinct+ion名詞后綴)
emphasis[5emfEsis]n.加強(qiáng)語氣; 強(qiáng)調(diào);(賦予某事物)特殊的意義、 價(jià)值或重要性(em加強(qiáng)語氣+phas顯示+is名詞后綴→加強(qiáng)顯示→強(qiáng)調(diào))
integrate[5intigreit]v.(使)成為一體,(使)結(jié)合在一起(integ完整+ate動(dòng)詞后綴→使結(jié)合)
journal[5dVE:nl]n.定期刊物,雜志,日?qǐng)?bào);日志,日記(journ日期+al形容詞后綴→日期,雜志)
logical[5lCdVikEl]a.邏輯的,符合邏輯的(log說話+ic名詞后綴→說話的學(xué)問+al形容詞后綴→合乎邏輯的)
overall[5EuvErC:l]a.全面的,綜合的n.(pl.)(套頭)工作服
participate[pa:5tisipeit]v.參加, 參與(parti部分,分開+cip進(jìn)入+ate動(dòng)詞后綴→進(jìn)入一部分→參加);participation(n.參加;分享)即Parti+cip+ation
primacy[5praimEsi]n.第一或首先的狀態(tài); 首席的職責(zé), 重要性(prim第一,主要的+acy名詞后綴→重要性)
professional[prE5feFEnl]a.職業(yè)的,專門的n.自由職業(yè)者,專業(yè)人士(profession+al形容詞后綴);professionalisation(n.職業(yè)化)即professional+is(e)+ation
psychology[sai5kClEdVi]n.心理,心理學(xué),心理狀態(tài)(psycho心理+logy名詞后綴表示科學(xué),學(xué)問→心理學(xué))
publication[pQbli5keiFEn]n.出版物;出版,發(fā)行;公布,發(fā)表(public公眾的+ation名詞后綴)
reckon[5rekEn]vi.計(jì)算,總計(jì),估計(jì)(up);猜想;依賴;認(rèn)為把……看作;視為(reck注意+on表狀態(tài)或動(dòng)作的動(dòng)詞后綴 →指望)
referee[refE5ri:]n.裁判員(refer+ee表示人→被提出的人→裁判)
reflect[ri5flekt]v.反射;表達(dá);反映;仔細(xì)考慮(re反+flect彎曲返回→反射)
represent[repri5zent]v.描述,表示;代表,代理;闡明,說明(re+present)
response[ris5pCns]n.回答,響應(yīng),反應(yīng)(re回+spons+e名詞后綴→承諾回應(yīng)→回答)
reveal[ri5vi:l]v.展現(xiàn),顯示,揭示,揭露,告訴,泄露(re反+veal→反蓋上→不讓蓋上→揭露)
separate[5sepEreit9 5sepErit]a.分離的,分開的(se分開+par安排+ate動(dòng)詞和形容詞后綴→分離)
split[split]v.裂開,劈開;分裂,分離n.分化,分裂,裂口
難句分析:
難句1 No clearcut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word ‘a(chǎn)mateur’does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific commUnity and, in Particular, may not fully share its values.
[分析]第一個(gè)句子的主干是“No... distinction can be drawn between...”,冒號(hào)后面的內(nèi)容是進(jìn)一步說明前面的觀點(diǎn)。在第二個(gè)句子中,一上來就有一個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)折詞nevertheless,表示語意的轉(zhuǎn)折,其主句是“the word ‘a(chǎn)mateur’does carry a connotation...”,后面有一個(gè)同位語從句,里面有兩個(gè)并列謂語。
[譯文]在科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi),專業(yè)與業(yè)余之間沒有絕對(duì)的區(qū)分:任何規(guī)則都有其例外。但是“業(yè)余”這個(gè)詞的確包含這樣的意義,那就是所指的那個(gè)人沒有完全融入某個(gè)科學(xué)家群體,具體地說,他可能并不完全認(rèn)同這個(gè)群體的價(jià)值觀。
難句2 The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
[分析]此句中兩個(gè)分句有同一個(gè)主語,即the trend,兩個(gè)謂語為was obvious和can be illustrated。前一個(gè)分句中based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training修飾areas of science。
[譯文]特別是在以數(shù)學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)室訓(xùn)練為基礎(chǔ)的科學(xué)領(lǐng)域,這種傾向自然尤為明顯,這可以通過英國(guó)的地質(zhì)學(xué)發(fā)展過程得到證實(shí)。
難句3 Acomparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper.
[分析]此句的主語是a comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half(中心詞為a comparison),謂語是reveals,賓語主體結(jié)構(gòu)是not simply... but also...所連接的兩個(gè)并列賓語,注意賓語emphasis和definition前都有分詞來修飾。
[譯文]對(duì)過去一個(gè)半世紀(jì)的英國(guó)地質(zhì)出版物進(jìn)行比較,我們不但發(fā)現(xiàn)人們對(duì)研究的重視程度在不斷增加,而且學(xué)術(shù)論文的出版標(biāo)準(zhǔn)也在不斷變化。
難句4 The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century.
[分析]此句主干是“The... result has been to do sth.”。注意逗號(hào)后面只是一個(gè)名詞性的短語,其核心詞是a result,可以被看成是前面句子主語的同位語,在其內(nèi)部主要是一個(gè)長(zhǎng)的定語從句,而定語從句中又有兩個(gè)并列的狀語first by..., and then by...。
[譯文]其整體的結(jié)果是使業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入專業(yè)性地質(zhì)學(xué)雜志更加困難,而審稿制度的全面引進(jìn)使這個(gè)結(jié)果得到加強(qiáng),這一制度開始是在19世紀(jì)的全國(guó)性雜志進(jìn)行,進(jìn)入20世紀(jì)后也在一些地方性地質(zhì)雜志實(shí)行。
文章類型:自然科學(xué)——科學(xué)史
這篇文章的主題為科學(xué)知識(shí)的專門化(specialization)與專業(yè)化(professionalisation)。
試題解析:
51. 19世紀(jì)專業(yè)化的發(fā)展在像那樣的科學(xué)領(lǐng)域可能看得更清晰。
[A] 社會(huì)學(xué)與化學(xué)[B] 物理學(xué)與心理學(xué)
[C] 社會(huì)學(xué)與心理學(xué)[D] 物理學(xué)與化學(xué)
細(xì)節(jié)事實(shí)題【正確答案】 [D]
定位在第二段倒數(shù)第二句找到題干中的19th century,然后在比較后一句中找到與題干中be more clearly seen in sciences相對(duì)應(yīng)的most obvious in those areas of science。隨后確定文中的關(guān)鍵詞areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training。因此 [D]為正確選項(xiàng)。
52. 根據(jù)本文,我們可以推知:
[A] 專業(yè)化和職業(yè)化之間幾乎沒區(qū)別。
[B] 業(yè)余人員能夠在科學(xué)的某些領(lǐng)域同專業(yè)人員競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。
[C] 專業(yè)人員往往歡迎業(yè)余研究人員加入科學(xué)團(tuán)體。
[D] 業(yè)余人員擁有全國(guó)性學(xué)術(shù)機(jī)構(gòu),但沒有地方性學(xué)術(shù)機(jī)構(gòu)。
推理題【正確答案】[B]
首先本題四個(gè)選項(xiàng)未曾提及geology,因此不必去第三、四段找考點(diǎn)。從第一段可知,專門化(針對(duì)研究領(lǐng)域)與專業(yè)化(針對(duì)研究人員)都屬于相關(guān)科學(xué)的發(fā)展,但二者內(nèi)容、性質(zhì)不同,因此[A]項(xiàng)錯(cuò)誤。第二段闡述了professionals和amateurs的關(guān)系,首句說,二者沒有什么截然不同,而且exceptions(特例)can be found to any rule,其潛臺(tái)詞是,對(duì)于人們一般所認(rèn)同的rule——專業(yè)比業(yè)余要好,也有例外,亦即“在某些情況下,業(yè)余人士甚至比專業(yè)人士做的更好”,因此[B]項(xiàng)符合題意。[C]項(xiàng)與第二句所說的事實(shí)情況(amateur...not fully integrated into the scientific community)相反,[D]項(xiàng)所說的national / local在第二段未曾提及,故都不能選。
53. 作者寫地質(zhì)學(xué)的發(fā)展是為論證:
[A] 專業(yè)化與職業(yè)化的發(fā)展過程。[B] 業(yè)余人員在科學(xué)研究中的艱辛。
[C] 科技出版物出版方針的變化。[D] 專業(yè)人員對(duì)業(yè)余人員的歧視。
例證題【正確答案】 [A]
定位在第二段比較后兩句或第四段第一句。第二段比較后一句中的The trend... can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom。說明第三段是作為例證來說明這一trend(趨勢(shì))的。而且根據(jù)第四段第一句也可進(jìn)行判斷,該句的前半句(Although the process of professionalisation and specialization was already well under way)即為第三段的總結(jié),所以選擇[A]項(xiàng)。
54. 專業(yè)化的直接原因是
[A] 交流的發(fā)展。[B] 職業(yè)化的發(fā)展。
[C] 科學(xué)知識(shí)的擴(kuò)展。[D] 學(xué)術(shù)團(tuán)體的分化。
細(xì)節(jié)事實(shí)題【正確答案】 [C]
定位在第一段第一句專業(yè)化是科學(xué)知識(shí)不斷積累的結(jié)果。該句的含義是:科學(xué)知識(shí)的積累促進(jìn)了知識(shí)的進(jìn)一步分類和分化(或?qū)iT化)。只有[C]項(xiàng)符合題意。
全文翻譯:
專業(yè)化是科學(xué)知識(shí)不斷積累的結(jié)果。通過將學(xué)科細(xì)化,個(gè)人能夠繼續(xù)把握信息并將它作為深入研究的基礎(chǔ)。但是專業(yè)化僅是科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)一系列影響交流過程的有關(guān)現(xiàn)象之一。另一現(xiàn)象是科學(xué)活動(dòng)的日益職業(yè)化。
第一段:簡(jiǎn)單介紹了科學(xué)發(fā)展所帶來的兩個(gè)結(jié)果:科學(xué)的專業(yè)化和職業(yè)化。
在科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi),專業(yè)與業(yè)余之間沒有絕對(duì)的區(qū)分:任何規(guī)則都有其例外。但是“業(yè)余”這個(gè)詞的確包含這樣的意義,那就是所指的那個(gè)人沒有完全融入某個(gè)科學(xué)家群體,具體地說,他可能并不完全認(rèn)同這個(gè)群體的價(jià)值觀。19世紀(jì)的專業(yè)化的發(fā)展,以及隨之而來的對(duì)訓(xùn)練的長(zhǎng)期性和復(fù)雜性的要求,對(duì)業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入科學(xué)界造成了更大的困難。特別是在以數(shù)學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)室訓(xùn)練為基礎(chǔ)的科學(xué)領(lǐng)域,這種傾向自然尤為明顯,這可以通過英國(guó)的地質(zhì)學(xué)發(fā)展過程得到證實(shí)。
第二段:在科研過程中,專業(yè)化的發(fā)展,對(duì)業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入科學(xué)界造成了更大的困難。
對(duì)過去一個(gè)半世紀(jì)的英國(guó)地質(zhì)出版物進(jìn)行比較,我們不但發(fā)現(xiàn)人們對(duì)研究的重視程度在不斷增加,而且學(xué)術(shù)論文的出版標(biāo)準(zhǔn)也在不斷變化。因此,在19世紀(jì),局部的地質(zhì)研究本身就可形成一種有價(jià)值的研究;而到了20世紀(jì),如果局部的研究能夠被專業(yè)人員接受,那么它越來越傾向于涉及體現(xiàn)或思考更廣闊的地質(zhì)面貌。另一方面業(yè)余人員繼續(xù)以舊的方式進(jìn)行區(qū)域的研究。其整體的結(jié)果是使業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入專業(yè)性地質(zhì)學(xué)雜志更加困難,而審稿制度的全面引進(jìn)使這個(gè)結(jié)果得到加強(qiáng),這一制度開始是在19世紀(jì)的全國(guó)性雜志進(jìn)行,進(jìn)入20世紀(jì)后也在一些地方性地質(zhì)雜志實(shí)行。這樣發(fā)展的必然結(jié)果是出現(xiàn)了針對(duì)專業(yè)讀者和業(yè)余讀者的不同雜志。類似的分化過程也導(dǎo)致專業(yè)地質(zhì)學(xué)家聚集起來,形成一兩個(gè)全國(guó)性的團(tuán)體,而業(yè)余地質(zhì)學(xué)家則要么留在地方性團(tuán)體中,要么以不同方式組成全國(guó)性的團(tuán)體。
第三段:以英國(guó)地質(zhì)學(xué)的發(fā)展過程為例,說明職業(yè)化和專業(yè)化過程。
雖然職業(yè)化和專業(yè)化過程在19世紀(jì)的英國(guó)地質(zhì)學(xué)界中已經(jīng)得到迅速發(fā)展,但是它的效果直到20世紀(jì)才充分顯示出來。然而,從科學(xué)領(lǐng)域的范圍來看,19世紀(jì)必須被視為科學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)改變的關(guān)鍵時(shí)期。
第四段:在前面幾段論述專業(yè)化的基礎(chǔ)上,指出19世紀(jì)被視為科學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)改變的關(guān)鍵時(shí)期。
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