In 1966 Allen and Beatrice Gardner, two psychologists at the University of Nevada in Reno, had a bright idea. They were interested in the evolution of language and the linguistic capabilities of great apes. Previous attempts to teach chimpanzees to talk had ended in failure and the matter was considered by most people to be closed. But the Gardners realised that speech and language are not the same thing. Many deaf people, for example, are unable to speak but are perfectly able to communicate by gestures that have all the attributes and sophistication of spoken language. Given the very different anatomies of the human and chimpanzee larynx, the Gardners suspected that previous experiments had failed because chimps are physically incapable of speech.

   They therefore decided to try teaching a chimpanzee to sign in the way that deaf people do. And their chosen subject, a female chimp named Washoe after the county in which the university campus is located, proved an adept pupil. Though there is still debate about whether what Washoe learned was really equivalent to human language, there is no doubt that she learned a lot of words. She now has a vocabulary of about 200. All of this, however, raises a second question. If Washoe and her successors can learn a complex and arbitrary vocabulary of gestures from people, do they have such vocabularies naturally? To examine that possibility Amy Pollick and Frans de Waal, of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, have looked at gestures and expressions in chimpanzees and their cousins, bonobos.

   Signalling by facial and vocal expression is ubiquitous among primates. Signalling by gesture is confined to the great apes. The researchers' hypothesis was that the meaning of expressions has been hard-wired by evolution whereas the meaning of gestures is learnt and, at least to some extent, is arbitrary. If that were true, particular sorts of facial and vocal expression would occur only in particular contexts, and that this would be consistent across groups and even species. The same gestures, by contrast, would be used in different contexts.

   The researchers found exactly what they expected. Expressions (“silent bared teeth”, “relaxed open mouth”, “pant hoot” and so on) almost always occurred in the same contexts in different groups and different species. Gestures (“hard touch”, “reach outside”, “slap ground” etc) did not. Half of the gestures Dr Pollick and Dr de Waal regularly observed seemed to have completely different meanings in the two species. Moreover, even within a single group, the meaning of a gesture could vary with context, almost as tone of voice can vary the meaning of a human's spoken word.

   It is also worth remembering that gesture is still a crucial part of human language, even for those with normal hearing. The old joke that the way to render an Italian speechless is to tie his hands together has a kernel of truth in it. Evolution does not come up with complicated structures in a single leap. They are built up step by step. This study suggests that the step of speech may have been built on mental attributes that were acquired millions of years ago when the ancestors of apes and men began to wave meaningfully at each other.

   注（1）：本文選自Economist, 03/03/2007

   注（2）：本文習(xí)題命題模仿對(duì)象為2002年真題Text 4。

   1． From the first paragraph, we learn that _______.

    [A] chimpanzees have no sense of language at all.

    [B] the Gardners found a new idea to develop the chimpanzee experiment.

    [C] previous experiments failed because they didn’t have clever cimpanzees.

    [D] chimpanzees can use gestures like blind people

   2． Which of the following statements is TRUE according to the text?

    [A] Washoes failed to use signs and gestures.

    [B] The vocabulary Washoe learnt is not similar to human language.

    [C] The Washoe experiment has enlighted further research.

    [D] The Gardners found that Washoe naturally knew how to use gestures.

   3． According to the author, gestures are different from facial and vocal expressions in that _______.

    [A] gestures are more complicated

    [B] gestures are limited to a certain type of species

    [C] facial and vocal experessions are more complicated

    [D] there is no difference

   4． Which of the following best defines the word “hard-wired” (Line 3, Paragraph 3)?

    [A] fixed

    [B] changed

    [C] taught

    [D] made

   5． The Pollick and de Waa research probably indicates that _______.

    [A] the apes are the closest species to human being

    [B] normal people do not really need the help of gestures

    [C] the great apes naturally have the ability to use gestures

    [D] human language may develop from signs and gestures

   篇章剖析

    本文是一片關(guān)于大猩猩語(yǔ)言能力研究的說明文。第一、二段介紹了卡德勒夫婦的研究成果并引出后兩位學(xué)者對(duì)倭黑猩猩的研究；第三段和第四段分別介紹了研究的假設(shè)和結(jié)果；比較后一段進(jìn)一步闡述了手勢(shì)對(duì)于人類腦力思考進(jìn)化的影響。

   詞匯注釋

   psychologist [psai`kClEdVist] n.心理學(xué)家        bonobo [`bEunE9bEu] n. 倭黑猩猩

   chimpanzee [`tFimpEn`zi:] n. 黑猩猩           ubiquitous [ju:`bikwitEs] adj.到處存在,普遍

   attribute [E`tribjut] n. 屬性, 品質(zhì), 特征        primate [`praimit] n. 靈長(zhǎng)類的動(dòng)物

   sophistication [sE9fisti`keiFEn] n. 復(fù)雜，精致   hard-wired adj. 天生的

   anatomy [E`nAtEmi] n. 分解，解剖           pant [pAnt] n. 氣喘

   larynx [`lAriNks] n.[解] 喉                   hoot [hu:t] vi. 大聲叫囂, 鳴響

   adept [E`dept] adj. 熟練的, 拿手的            render [`rendE] vt. 致使

   successor [sEk`sesE] n. 繼承者, 接任者

   難句突破

   The researchers' hypothesis was that the meaning of expressions has been hard-wired by evolution whereas the meaning of gestures is learnt and, at least to some extent, is arbitrary.

   主體句式  The researchers' hypothesis was that…

   結(jié)構(gòu)分析  這個(gè)句子的難點(diǎn)在于that之后的這個(gè)賓語(yǔ)從句。從句以whereas為界可以分為兩個(gè)部分，其中后半個(gè)句子由whereas引導(dǎo)與前半個(gè)句子為并列結(jié)構(gòu)，此外at least to some extent是一個(gè)插入語(yǔ)，一定程度上干擾和混淆了is learnt 和is arbitrary這兩個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)的并列關(guān)系。

   句子譯文  研究者的假設(shè)是，表情的意義在長(zhǎng)期的進(jìn)化過程中已經(jīng)成為一種天生的能力，而手勢(shì)的意義是后天學(xué)成的，至少在一定程度上是任意的。

   題目分析

   1．B. 細(xì)節(jié)題。文章第一段的主要內(nèi)容就是講述卡德勒夫婦對(duì)于黑猩猩語(yǔ)言能力試驗(yàn)的新想法，因此答案顯而易見。

   2．C. 細(xì)節(jié)題。文章第二段中指出，Washoe的成就使科學(xué)家們提出了新的問題，并進(jìn)行了進(jìn)一步的研究，因此C選項(xiàng)正確。

   3．B. 細(xì)節(jié)題。文章第三段第一句話指出，“通過表情和聲音來發(fā)送信號(hào)的現(xiàn)象在靈長(zhǎng)類動(dòng)物中是普遍存在的。但只有大猩猩才能用手勢(shì)發(fā)送信號(hào)”，并不存在兩者那個(gè)更加復(fù)雜的說法。

   4．A. 語(yǔ)義題。從該詞所在句子的上下文中，可以推出表情具有固定的意義，成為了動(dòng)物一種天生的能力。

   5．D. 推理題。文章比較后一段的比較后一句話指出，人類祖先在使用手勢(shì)的時(shí)候很可能促使了腦部的發(fā)展，從而漸漸產(chǎn)生了語(yǔ)言能力，因此答案為D。

   參考譯文

   1966年，內(nèi)華達(dá)大學(xué)雷諾分校的兩名心理學(xué)家阿倫與比特里斯·卡德勒夫婦產(chǎn)生了一個(gè)聰明的想法。他們對(duì)于大猩猩的說話和語(yǔ)言的進(jìn)化能力非常感興趣。前人研究曾試圖教黑猩猩如何說話，但那些努力比較終都以失敗告終，很多人認(rèn)為這個(gè)領(lǐng)域已經(jīng)沒有什么可以研究的了。但是卡德勒夫婦意識(shí)到說話和語(yǔ)言并不是一件事情。比如說，許多聾啞人不能說話，但是他們卻能夠用手勢(shì)進(jìn)行充分的交流，這些手勢(shì)都包含了人類語(yǔ)言的那些特點(diǎn)和精細(xì)度。由于人類和黑猩猩喉嚨的結(jié)構(gòu)不同，卡德勒夫婦認(rèn)為前人研究的失敗是因?yàn)楹谛尚缮�理上就無法說話。

    因此，他們決定試著教一只黑猩猩如何使用聾啞人的手勢(shì)。他們選擇的研究對(duì)象是一個(gè)名為Washoe的雌性黑猩猩，研究地點(diǎn)就在該大學(xué)的校園里，實(shí)驗(yàn)將她培養(yǎng)成了一個(gè)能熟練使用手勢(shì)的學(xué)生。盡管人們?nèi)栽跔?zhēng)論Washoe學(xué)會(huì)的到底能不能算人類語(yǔ)言，但是毫無疑問她學(xué)會(huì)了很多詞匯。她現(xiàn)在的詞匯量約為200個(gè)單詞。所有這些都使人們提出了第二個(gè)問題。如果Washoe和她的繼任者們能夠從人類那里學(xué)會(huì)復(fù)雜和任意的詞匯，那么他們是不是天生就擁有這些詞匯呢？為了驗(yàn)證這種可能性，亞特蘭大埃默里大學(xué)的愛米·波利克和弗朗斯·德瓦爾對(duì)一些黑猩猩和他們的近親倭黑猩猩的手勢(shì)和表情進(jìn)行了研究。

    通過表情和聲音來發(fā)送信號(hào)的現(xiàn)象在靈長(zhǎng)類動(dòng)物中是普遍存在的。但只有大猩猩才能用手勢(shì)發(fā)送信號(hào)。研究者的假設(shè)是，表情的意義在長(zhǎng)期的進(jìn)化過程中已經(jīng)成為一種天生的能力，而手勢(shì)的意義是后天學(xué)成的，至少在一定程度上是任意的。如果這個(gè)假設(shè)成立的話，那么各種特別的臉部表情和聲音就只會(huì)在特殊的情境下才能發(fā)生，而且在物種群甚至是物種之間都是一致的。相反，同樣的手勢(shì)卻能夠在不同的情境下使用。

    研究結(jié)果正如預(yù)期。不同的物種群以及物種之間都會(huì)在相同的情境下使用一些表情（“不出聲地張嘴露齒”、“放松地張嘴”、“高聲氣促”等），而卻不會(huì)用相同的手勢(shì)（“硬碰”、“向外伸手”、“互相打擊”等）。波利克和德瓦爾博士規(guī)律性地觀察到的近半手勢(shì)在兩種動(dòng)物之間的意義幾乎都是完全不同的。此外，即使是在一種動(dòng)物內(nèi)部，一個(gè)手勢(shì)的意義可能在不同的情境下有所變化，就像人類說話時(shí)用不同的聲調(diào)可以表示不同的意義那樣。

    我們應(yīng)該記得手勢(shì)仍然是人類語(yǔ)言中一個(gè)至關(guān)重要的組成部分，即使是對(duì)那些沒有正常聽力的人來說。有一個(gè)老笑話說，如果要讓一個(gè)意大利人閉嘴，那就把他的手綁起來，這個(gè)笑話有其道理所在。進(jìn)化的過程不會(huì)一步就達(dá)到復(fù)雜的結(jié)構(gòu)，而是一步一步演化過來的。該研究間接地說明了，當(dāng)我們的猿人和人類祖先開始有意義地向彼此揮手的時(shí)候，這種腦力思考的特點(diǎn)就在一步步地向語(yǔ)言能力發(fā)展。